STEEL PRODUCTION FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: LESSONS FROM CHINA AND INDIA
Prince Habib Enesi, PhD
Department of History and International Studies,
Federal University, Lokoja, Nigeria
&
Mahmoud Yahaya
Nigerian Air Force
Abstract
Steel development as a panacea for a nation socio-economic development cannot be overemphasised as steel is the bedrock of industrialization. Arising from this understanding, most developed nations of the world harnessed their steel potentials deploying government apparatus to achieve its goal. This paper therefore examines the role of governments in furthering steel production for national development using China and India as case studies. The paper attempts to analyse the national steel policies of these countries so that Nigeria could take a cue in her steel development efforts. Deploying the historical methodology of primary secondary sources, the paper argues that there was a deliberate and conscious effort by the leadership of China and India to produce steel for overall national development which has been lacking in the case of the Nigerian steel sector. The paper concludes that if the Nigerian Government could take a cue from China and India with respect to their steel policies, the Nigerian steel projects which began in 1979 and currently in comatose could be revived and refurbished for optimal production which will in turn engender social-economic development of the nation.
Introduction
Throughout the ages, iron continues to be very important to human activities. The coming of the Steam Age in Europe further transformed the modern iron industry into steel making, allowing its increasingly lavish use for construction and industrial purposes. Nations therefore devote considerable efforts to harness iron for steel production, to drive industrialization and engender socio-economic activities for sustained national development. Steel development as a bedrock for industrialization cannot be overemphasized. This is because, steel is the pivot for the development of many industries such as automobile, defence, energy, construction, mechanical machinery and transportation.1 Indeed, achieving efficiency in steel production has become a pivot for the growth of allied industries, self-reliance, and improvement in the living standards of the citizens, thereby enhancing overall national development.
Nigeria, not oblivious of the importance of steel to National Development hatched the idea of steel development early in her independent life. In 1958, the Tafawa Balewa regime observed that the prospective new nation of Nigeria must, as a matter of urgency, propose steel development in her national industrial plan to ensure sustainable national development. This major governmental policy statement propelled the prospecting and establishment of the Nigerian Steel Projects between 1960 and 1982, with huge financial commitment, which has been estimated to be about 7 billion dollars.2 Unfortunately, just as the prospect suffered setbacks, the Nigerian Steel Projects had suffered similar fate. However, in other climes, steel development has been a core national policy of governments with the aim of industrial and national development.
While other nations prosper with steel investment, Nigeria steel project has always been in a quagmire. The question, therefore, is what Nigeria is doing wrong with respect to its steel policy that has made steel driven national development a mirage since 1960?What are other nations doing right to ensure sustainable steel development? These questions necessitated the imperativeness of understudying steel development in China and India, who are the leading steel exporters in the world, to draw lessons on how government managed the steel sector for national development. Adopting principally secondary and primary sources of historical methodology, this paper is divided into eight segments with the following themes: introduction, history of Nigeria Steel Project, contribution of steel to national development, steel and national development in Nigeria, steel development in India, steel development in China, inherent lessons for Nigeria and conclusion.
History of Nigeria Steel Project
The Nigerian Steel Project was a flagship industrialization drive at independence. The Federal Government of Nigeria in her quest to rapidly develop the new nation sought for proposals from her western allies for the prospecting of iron and steel in Nigeria between 1960 and 1966, and these western allies reported the non-feasibility of the Nigerian steel dream. However, at the onset of the Nigerian Civil War and a change in Foreign Policy orientation, Nigeria turned to the Communist Soviet Union for assistance with respect to the prospect of steel in Nigeria. The Soviet report was favourable in 1971, which led to several contractual agreements between Nigeria and the defunct Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).3In furtherance of the steel drive, Decree No.19 was promulgated on the 4th of April 1971 by the then Federal Military Government under the leadership of Gen. Yakubu Gowon. The decree provided for the setting up of Nigerian Steel Development Authority (NSDA), with the responsibility of planning and supervision of steel production in Nigeria. By 1979, NSDA was dissolved and its functions returned to a new National Steel Council (NSC) created by Decree No.60 of 1979.4
The creation of the NSC wrapped up discussions on Nigeria Steel Project and culminated into the signing of the ‘Global Contract’ for the first integrated steel project in Nigeria situated in Ajaokuta in 1979 between the Federal Government of Nigeria and Trypromexport of defunct USSR. Steel rolling mills were also established in Osogbo, Katsina and Jos to feed from the billets from the Ajaokuta Steel Project. It is imperative to note that steel development features throughout most of Nigeria’s national development plans. To underscore the importance of steel to national development, the steel sector was placed in the presidency between 1979 and 1983, under the leadership of Alhaji Shehu Shagari, for effective monitoring and policy implementations. However, in 1985, the Federal Government under the leadership of General Muhammad Buhari returned the supervision of the steel sector to a reconstituted Ministry of Mines and Steel. The ministry was at some other times reconstituted as the Ministry of Mines, Steel and Power.5 The merger of this strategic steel sector to the seemingly more lucrative mines sector or seemingly more important power sector further dwarfed the attention required for the supervision of sustainable steel production in the country.
At the same time Nigeria began the construction of the Ajaokuta integrated steel plant using the blast furnace/basic oxygen method of steel production. It also embarked on the ambitious Delta Steel Company at Aladja, to produce steel using the Electric Furnace/Direct Reduction method of steel production. The contract for the Delta Steel Company was awarded to Messers Schneide GMBH Consortium of Germany which was completed and started operation in 1983.6 It should be noted that the Delta Steel Company, Aladja uses only super concentrate ores and the non-completion of an iron ore super-concentrate line at the National Iron Ore Mining Company, Itakpe (NIOMCO) thwarted the ambition of the steel company as primary input products were not forthcoming.
In 2003, the Federal Government of Nigeria in her robust privatization agenda concession the Ajaokuta Steel Company to Solgas Energy Limited (SEL) of USA an arrangement which failed the following year and by 2004, the Federal Government secured a second concessionary agreement with Global Infrastructure Nigeria Limited (GINL). This concession was terminated by the Federal Government in 2008, which resulted into litigation with GINL at the International Court of Arbitration, London. The out-of-court settlement agreed with GINL since 2013 is not yet completely resolved, leaving the steel projects in a quagmire.7
Most recently, Nigerians were very enthusiastic of a possible resuscitation of the moribund steel industry for national development with the signing of the Sochi agreement between President Vladimir Putin of Russia and President Muhammad Buhari of Nigeria in 2019 at the side-lines of Russia-Africa Economic Summit held in Sochi, Russia. The agreement which was the highest level bilateral meeting between Russia and Nigeria on Steel development in Nigeria in several decades gave a glimmer of hope as both leaders, who expressed commitment to the realization of the Ajaokuta steel project. Unfortunately, the Corona virus epidemic that broke out in November 2019, made it impossible for technical experts to visit Nigeria for technical audit, due to the international flight ban and movement restriction.8 The traditional lackadaisical attitude of government handling the steel sector also played out as the presidential committee on the implementation of Ajaokuta Steel was jettisoned for the more lucrative Presidential Committee on Covid-19. Incidentally, both committees were chaired by same person, Mr. Boss Mustapha, Secretary to the Federal Government of Nigeria.
Contribution of Steel to National Development
National development refers to the collective efforts of a country to improve the quality of life of its people. These efforts include provision of employment to its teeming youths, wealth creation and stimulation, economic growth and prosperity, advancement in technology as well as overall improvement in the well-being of citizens.9 Governments all over the world see the welfare of its citizenry as a cardinal objective and as such do not easily neglect steel development which has made significant contributions to the economic prosperity of nations. According to Oxford Economics, the total value-added contribution of the global steel industry output of 1,691.2 million metric tonnes for 2017 was US$8.2 trillion equivalent to 10.7 percent of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Oxford Economics report submits that with this GDP, a total of about 259 million jobs were created globally that year.10 The 2021 world economic rankings also showed that the top 9 crude steel producing countries were among the top 20 national military fire powers and among the top 20 largest economies by GDP.11 Thus, nations desirous of economic growth, military might and national development will definitely continue to make significant investment in crude steel production for sustained national development.
In Europe, Steel development is a major focus for national development. Little wonder the first industrial revolution in mid-18th Century started in Europe with the development of steel for manufacturing and later transportation purposes. Since then, European nations have not looked back on this pivot of national development. In fact, Britain had to inject 700 million pound sterling into her ailing steel industry in 1983, which at that time were privately owned to show the importance of steel to the British economy.12 NJG Ponds argues that Steel development in Poland was jealously guarded as a national heritage, as every polish prides herself with a phrase “we built Nova-Huta”.13 Russia (the largest producer of steel in Europe), Germany and France and a host of other European Nations owe their national development, military might and economic prosperity partly to the development of steel.
In Latin America, steel development has remained one of the backbones of the Brazilian economy. The Brazilian government operated up to 8 national crude steel producing plants for a total of 69 years from 1921 to 1990 before privatising them in 1991. Between 1991 and 2010, the industry received an estimated investment of about US$223.4 billion from the privatizations.14 As a result, steel production capacity doubled from 1,600 metric tons in 1991 to 3,300 million metric tons in 2010. Over time, the industry expanded to about 29 steel mills accounting for 3.5 percent of the Brazilian GDP in 2019, and contributing US$75 billion to her economy while creating over 225,000 jobs. As at 2020, Brazil ranked the largest crude steel producing country in Latin America and also ranks the largest economy by GDP and the strongest military firepower in the region.15 With the above statistics and analysis, steel production in Brazil created employment and generated revenue for the country over the years and ensured her sustained national and military development.
Africa as a continent has been poor in steel development. However, Egypt has for long embarked on developing her iron ore reserves into steel products to drive national development. After several years of strong demand growth, the economic turmoil associated with the 2011 Arab Spring dampened steel consumption in Egypt leaving supply above demand. This led the government to impose import tariffs to boost domestic consumption. The government imposed a temporary 6.38 percent import tariff on imported steel in 2012, and subsequently increased it to 15 percent for billet products and 25 percent for rebar in 2016.16 More so, in 2017 the Egyptian government enacted Egypt’s Investment Law No. 72 of 2017 to attract investors in the steel production sector. As a result, steel Production in Egypt increased to 993,884 tons in December 2020 from 672.048 tons in November 2020. By the end of 2021, Egypt ranked the largest crude steel producing country in Africa, the strongest military firepower in the region and is also the second largest economy by GDP in the continent.17 Thus, Egypt’s efforts on steel production contributed to her economic growth and has continuously enhanced her national and military development. South Africa is another major player in the production of steel in Africa and this has impacted greatly on her national development.
Steel and National Development in Nigeria
Nigeria has proven reserves of iron ore of about 3 billion metric tons and limestone up to 568 million metric tons among other minerals needed for steel production.18 It is expedient to note that the effective exploration of these God given natural minerals for iron and steel production would engender sustained national development in the country. Accordingly, the Federal Government of Nigeria, not oblivious of this opportunity and through series of national development plans, incorporated the Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited, the Delta Steel Company, Aladja and also established several other steel agencies to actualize Nigeria’s quest for sustainable steel production. However, after the investment of a total of over $7 billion and several failed concessionary agreements, the Nigerian crude steel production sector still remains docile.19 This leaves the Nigerian steel market to be currently dominated by several privately owned scrap recycling and billet re-rolling mills and with a total importation of about $3.3billion steel products into the Nigerian economy annually mainly from Asia.20
As highlighted above, steel development has featured severally in Nigeria’s national development plan. It is on record that during the Second National Development Plan of 1970 to 1974, the Federal Government of Nigeria under the leadership of General Yakubu Gowon established the NSDA. The NSDA metamorphosed during the Third National Development Plan (1975-1980) into the National Steel Council with 2 integrated steel plants: the Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited (ASCL) and the Delta Steel Company, Aladja (DSC); alongside the National Iron Ore Mining Company, Itakpe (NIOMCO); 3 steel rolling mills and 3 steel/metallurgical agencies.21 The DSC was completed and operated briefly between the mid-80s, the 90s and early 2000s, before it was privatized to Global Infrastructure Nigeria Limited (GINL) and later sold to Premium Steel and Mines Limited (PSML) in 2005 and 2015 respectively. The DSC now produces reinforcement bars only with its crude steel production plant remaining moribund.22
The Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited on the other hand remains uncompleted after over 40 years of intermittent construction work and despite provisions for her completion and operation in the Nigeria Vision 20:2020 National Development Plan. The Ajaokuta Steel Project was earmarked to be an integrated steel plant supplying billets to the rolling mills in Nigeria apart from her own milling provisions. Construction began on the Project in 1980 after the Federal Government signed what is known as the Global Contract with the major contractor, Tryajpromexport (TPE) of the defunct United Soviet Socialist Republics. It is, however, important to note that the Ajaokuta Steel Project has reached 98 percent completion of its first phase, which was estimated to produce 1.3 million metric tons of steel products when completed.23 During the just concluded Economic Growth and Recovery Plan (EGRP 2017-2020) era, the Federal Government of Nigeria facilitated the incorporation of a privately owned US$1.5 billion Direct-Reduced-Iron plant in Kaduna, to promote crude steel production, the construction of which is still ongoing. The current National Development Plan(NDP 2021-2025) has also made provisions for the completion and operation of the Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited for crude steel production by Year 2025.24
Irrespective of this optimism, the Federal Government has not shown any considerable sign to match words with action. As at today, however, Nigeria though the largest economy by GDP in Africa with no meaningful national development, produces no crude steel and ranks as a relatively lower behind Egypt and South Africa, the 2 top crude steel producing countries in the continent in terms of overall national development. This set in the ball rolling for this paper to understudy the operations of steel in China and India for possible adaptation by the leadership of the Federal Government of Nigeria for effective harnessing of steel potentials for national development.
Steel Development in China
Just like every nation desirous of industrialization, the Chinese government viewed the steel sector as strategic and thus played a leading role in its development. Steel development in China went through a dynamic process with her government playing a key role in the development of the iron and steel industry for enhanced national development. In early 1950s, the government of China began the construction of China’s iron and steel industry with assistance from the defunct United Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Before then, China’s installed capacity for steel production was about 158,000 tons.25 The technical intervention of the defunct Soviet Union through several government to government arrangement include concessionary agreement which invariably led to increased production capacity from the 159,000 tons in 1950 to 5.3 million metric tons in 1957.26 Thus, China from that period, even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, developed a policy to invest heavily and grow her steel sector due to its strategic importance to her economy.
One major measure adopted by the Chinese government was the introduction of the Chinese Industrial Policy in 1985. The principal objectives of the Chinese Industrial Policy was to grow steel production to 60 million metric tons by the end of 1990 and to be increased to 80 million metric tons by 1995. This, she achieved through establishment of a Steel Development Fund (SDF) with an investment of about US$10 billion between 1985 and 1995.China did not only meet her targeted goals at the end of this estimated deadlines, they indeed surpassed these goals by producing 61 million metric tons of crude steel in 1989, and 95 million metric tons in 1995.27 In 1996, Chinese steel output went beyond 101 million metric tons surpassing the 100 million metric tons marked for the first time, as China overtook Japan to become the world’s largest steel producer.28 The technical assistance from the USSR coupled with effective policy implementation and Chinese government commitment was critical to the growth of its steel production for enhanced national development in China.
By July 2005, the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) issued a Steel and Iron Industry Development Policy, outlining a comprehensive plan for the continued expansion and modernization of the Chinese steel industry. The Chinese government provided start-up capital, access to cheap land, access to bank loans at subsidized rates and lines of buyer credit to enable steel investors access funds as well as having conducive environment for their businesses.29 Investors were also offered fiscal incentives which include tax exemptions and lowering of import duties for core technologies, raw material and equipment to encourage steel production at a cheaper rate. With these incentives, steel production in China increased from 567 million metric tons in 2010 to 1,064 million metric tons in 2021.30 China currently dominates the world steel market exporting iron and steel commodities to about 224 countries and territories and generated US$48.4 billion from these exports in 2019 alone.31 Thus, steel development has tremendously impacted and enhanced national development in China by generating revenue, job creation and wealth stimulation.
Steel Development in India
India has always exploited their iron reserves crudely since the early nineteenth century. However, modern industrial steel production in India could be traced to the formation of the Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited by J.N. Tata in 1907. Tata having set the ball rolling for modern steel production, the Indian government followed suit in 1918 with the establishment of the Indian Iron and Steel Company Limited and the Mysore Iron and Steel Works. In 1947 after India gained her independence from British rule, the government of the newly independent India launched series of 5-year development plans to among other objectives expand her iron and steel sector. The government set in motion, the erection of 3 new integrated steel plants to raise national annual steel production capacity from 1.5 million metric tons to 6 million metric tons by 1961 in the Second Five Year Plan. This effort was further raised to 10 million metric tons by 1966 in the Third Five Year Plan to stimulate India’s economy for national development.32 Thus, the Government of India continuously planned and achieved sustained steel production after her independence till date, making her a major player in the world steel sector.
India today stands as the second largest crude steel producer in the world after China with an annual crude steel production of 107.3 million metric tons in November 2021. India’s steel industry accounted for around 2 percent contribution to the country’s economy in 2021.33 This rapid rise resulted from the liberalization of the steel industry in 1991 through policy measures bordering on removing the industry from the list of industries reserved for public sector; including it among high priority industries; creating a flexible trade policy for free import/export; and deregulation of price and distribution. The resultant effect of these deliberate policies on the sector led to tremendous infrastructural development and rapid industrialization of India, increasing the total finished steel production at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 8.39 percent during the 2012 to 2017 Indian Financial Year (FY12-17).34 There was also a proliferation of numerous private investors ranging from small to large scale entrepreneurs who invested into steel production business resulting into massive employment opportunities aggregating up to 2,000,000 job opportunities.35
Lesson inherent for Nigerian Government
Having studied steel development in China and India, some of the important lessons from the experiences of these steel giants Nigeria can tap from include the importance of government leading role in steel production, need for investment capital, imperative of robust steel production policy and importance of creation of investors’ incentives. These inherent lessons from the India and China experience in harnessing their steel sectors are explained below:
i. Role of Government: The governments of China and India played key roles in the development of steel production, to enhance their national development. The Chinese government took the lead in the development of steel industry in the country between 1949 and 1957, through the assistance gotten from the defunct USSR. The Chinese government was fully in charge of the administration of the steel industry, which yielded a tremendous boost in steel production from 158,000 metric tons in 1949 to 1.35 million metric tons in 1952.36 The Chinese government later allowed privately owned enterprises and other smaller/lighter steel companies to partake in the industry. Similarly, the Indian government liberalised its policies on steel production only after having managed the sector from independence and identified the potentials abound therein. Thus, the leading role played by the governments of China and India helped in boosting steel production to enhance national development in both countries.
However, in Nigeria, successive governments have shown lackadaisical attitude in taking a leading role in steel development. Apart from the Alhaji Shehu Shagari administration (1979 – 1983), where the steel sector was directly under the supervision of the presidency, almost all Nigerian administrations (both military and civilian) have downplayed government role in steel development. They are always beclouded by sentiments, corruption or outright abandonment for sectors that seems to be more lucrative in instant cash such as petroleum and power. Note that China and India did not just privatise a moribund steel sector but had operated and stabilized the sector before it was liberalized and privatized. Nigeria seem to be more in a hurry to concession/privatize the ailing steel sector for private benefits when she ought to have revitalised and make it operational for sustainable national development. This has further marred the steel sector since 2003, when it was first given in concession/privatization.
ii. Funding: Steel Development is capital intensive and requires government’s intervention. In this vein, China invested heavily into steel production with the intention of making it a strategic sector for economic growth. Between 1985 and 1995 China invested about US$10 billion for the establishment of a steel development fund.37 This boosted steel production and enhanced national development in China. Similarly, the lack of re-investment for new production capacity slowed-down India’s iron and steel growth rate. In the case of Nigeria, there has not been any deliberate investment plan for the steel sector. The President Ibrahim Babangida’s regime purported investment on steel infrastructure in 1989 was a sham and a conduit pipe for corruption. Raw materials imported were wasted at the Onne port while the sum was inflated to grease private pockets.38
The Debt buy back of Steel debt from Tryajpromexport by the Abacha regime in 1997 was the greatest fraud in Nigerian steel history. The debt buy back was a deal between Tryajpromexport (TPE) (Major contractor of Ajaokuta Steel Project) and Mecosta Nigeria Limited. As at 1996 when the contract of TPE was terminated by Abacha government, the company was being owed the sum of 2 billion dollars. Mecosta approached TPE to buy the debt at 500 million dollars advancing the argument that the Abacha junta will not pay them due to his draconian policies. However, being a Nigerian company, Mecosta will take the risk and pursue the payment of the debt which may be successful or not and may take decades. TPE not wanting to completely loose the money obliged Mecosta and the debt was sold. Unknown to TPE, The Abacha family has a stake in Mecosta and within three months of the deal, the Federal Government paid to Mecosta the sum of 2 billion dollars being the total debt owed to TPE.39
Currently, Nigeria is asking for 1.5 billion dollars aid to resuscitate her steel sector from Russia and African Export Import Bank (Afrexim Bank) as a result of 2019 Sochi agreement, whereas, the country spends huge sums of dollars on frivolous expenses and looting. Nigeria could adequately fund the resuscitation of her steel sector internally if only they are interested in funding it by cutting cost of governance, reduce mundane expenditure and appropriate funds to the sector. Thus, the Nigerian government need to continuously support steel production through capital investment to enhance economic growth and national development.
iii. Policy Guidelines: China demonstrated best practices in its policy implementation for steel production. The Chinese government formulated China’s Steel and Iron Industry Development Policy and provided start-up capital and access to cheap land to enable growth of steel production. Similarly, the Government of India approved the National Steel Policy in 2017 which envisages steelmaking capacity of 300 million metric tons and 160kg per capita steel consumption by 2030-31.40 Thus, adoption of policy guidelines drawn from best practices boosted steel production and enhanced national development in China and India respectively.
On the contrary, Nigeria has never developed any concise implementable policy on steel development. Most development plans in Nigeria mentions steel development in passing and most interesting is that steel did not feature in Nigeria’s Defence plan knowing well that steel is a major requirement in arms production. Chapter 8 of the National development Plan (NDP) 2021 – 2015, a medium-term blueprint designed to unlock the country’s potentials in all sectors of the economy for a sustainable, holistic and inclusive national development focuses on lending support to the growth of solid minerals, mining and steel development in passing. Unfortunately, this too has not come to fruition.
iv. Creating enabling environment for investors: The Chinese government recognised the importance of creating tax and fiscal incentives for the development of her steel industry. The government provided access to credit facility, tax exemptions and rebates as well as lowering of import duties for core technologies, raw material and equipment to encourage steel production at a cheaper rate. The Indian government has similarly made economic reforms including free import of foreign technology and foreign direct investment and free export duty on selected steel product to booster steel production. These efforts on investor incentives as demonstrated by the Chinese and Indian governments have enhanced steel production for sustained national development in both countries.
Conclusion
This study examined steel production and national development in Nigeria. It observed that despite several efforts by the Federal Government to ensure sustainable steel production, several factors inhibit its achievement with negative implications on national development. Thus the study examined two leading steel nations of China and India, which revealed that the successes in steel development has to do with some factors such as importance of government leading role in steel production, need for investment capital, imperative of robust steel production policy and importance of creation of investors’ incentives. This paper believes that if the Nigerian leadership could muster the political will and tenaciously guide her steel dream, it will definitely have a geometric effect such as industrial cluster development, employment generation, defence production, export earnings, political power and techno-economic development amongst others, which will positively impact on national development.
Notes
1. E. Askerov,Economic impact of the global steel industry.Retrieved from www.worldsteel.org/media-centre/blog/2019/economic-impact-of-the-global-steel-industry., (2019):11.
2. P.H. Enesi, ‘Stalled Ajaokuta Steel Project: The Contributions of Global Infrastructure Nigeria Limited, 2000 – 2015’. RIMA International Journal of Historical Studies, 4(1), (2019):145.
3. P. H. Enesi & J. Odoh, ‘Steel Development and Regional Agitations: Interrogating the Nigerian Steel Project, 1960 -1980’, Edo Journal of Arts, Management and Social Sciences, 2(2), (2020): 87
4. Ministry of Mine and Steel Development. Timeline of Activities on Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited Retrieved from .https://www.minesandsteel.gov.ng/2018/04/02/timeline-of-activities-on-ajaokuta-steel-company-limited, April 2021.
5. P.H. Enesi, Politics of Steel Development in Nigeria: A Study of Ajaokuta Steel Project, Nigeria, 1980 – 2011. Kano Journal of History, 2(2), (2016): 200.
6. Interview with S. Oboli, Deputy General Manager Operations of Delta Steel,53 years,Aladja, Delta State, 22/12/2021.
7. Interview with A Umar, Deputy Director Steel Federal Ministry of Mines and Steel Development, 57 years, Abuja,16/02/2022.
8. Interview with Engr. Akaaba, Sole Administrator, Ajaokuta Steel Company, Ajaokuta,
9. M. Yahaya, ‘Steel Production and National Development’, A Project submitted to the National Defence College, Abuja, 2022
10. Oxford Economics,The Role of Steel Manufacturing in the Global Economy: A Report for the World Steel Association.(London: Broadwall House, 2019) 46.
11. World Population Review,Steel Production by Country 2021, Retrieved from worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/steel-production-by-country, February 2022.
12. P.H. Enesi, Politics of Steel Development in Nigeria…, 212.
13. N.J.G. Ponds, ‘The Geography of Iron and Steel’ in Economic Geography, Vol. 23, (1947):58
14. Brazil Steel Institute,Steel History, Retrieved from acobrasil.org.br/site/en/steel-history, 2021.
15. C. Mathilde, Latin America crude steel production by country 2019,Retrieved from /www.statista.com/statistics/769699/latin-america-steel-production, 2021.
16. S. Allam, Egypt court upholds ruling on halting 15% iron billet duties. Retrieved February 18, 2022, from Amwal Al Ghad: https://en.amwalalghad.com/egypt-court-upholds-ruling-on-halting-15-iron-billet-duties, (2019).
17. S. Varrella, GDP of African countries 2021, by country. Statista: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1120999/gdp-of-african-countries-by-country/(2021).
18. Ministry of Mines and Steel Development,Roadmap For The Growth And Development Of The Nigerian Mining Industry. FCT, Abuja, (2016): 4.
19. P.H. Enesi, Politics of Steel Development in Nigeria…, 209.
20. E. Egbejule, Nigeria’s dilemma over failing steel mills. The Africa Report. https://www.theafricareport.com/16140/nigerias-dilemma-over-its-steel-mills, 2019.
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23. P. H. Enesi & J. Odoh, ‘Steel Development and Regional Agitations…, 89
24. Interview with Muhammed Sanusi, Secretary General African Iron and Steel Association, 67 years, Abuja, 10/03/2022.
25. G. Popescu, E. Nica, E. Nicolăescu and G. Lăzăroiu, ‘China’s Steel Industry as a Driving Force for Economic Growth and International Competitiveness’. METALURGIJA, 55(1), (2016): 122.
26. G. Popescu, E. Nica, E. Nicolăescu and G. Lăzăroiu, ‘China’s Steel Industry as a Driving Force for Economic Growth…, 124.
27. P.H. Enesi, .Stalled Ajaokuta Steel Project: The Contributions of Global Infrastructure Nigeria Limited, 2000 – 2015. RIMA International Journal of Historical Studies, 4(1), (2019): 145.
28. R. Tang, China’s Steel Industry and its impact on the United States: Issues for Congress. China: Congressional Research Service,2010, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R41421.pdf
29. P.H. Enesi, Stalled Ajaokuta Steel Project: The Contributions of Global Infrastructure Nigeria Limited…,136.
30. R. Tang, China’s Steel Industry and its impact, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R41421.pdf
31. International Trade Administration, Global Steel Trade Monitor: Steel Exports Report China. Washington, DC: International Trade Administration, (2020).
32. K.N. Rao, “A Brief History of the Indian Iron and Steel Industry”, (1963). Retrieved from https://eprints.nmlindia.org/5558/1/1-7.PDF march, 2021.
33. World Steel Association,Brazil Steel Production. Trading Economics, (2021),
34. V.K. Yadav, Appraisal and Importance of Iron and Steel in India. EPRA International Journal of Economic and Business Review. 3, (2015): 9.
35. V.K. Yadav, Appraisal and Importance of Iron and Steel in India…, 11.
36. J.G. Trench, Role of the Chinese steel industry in the economic development of China and Australia’s contribution to the industry as a supplier of raw materials (Unpublished PhD thesis). Murdoch University, (2004): 93.
37. P.H. Enesi, ‘Chinese Steel hegemony and its impact on Africa’s development’, A paper presented at Lagos Studies Association 4th Annual Conference, Lagos, (June, 2021): 8
38. C. C. Osakwe and P. H. Enesi, ‘Corruption and Steel Development in Nigeria: A Study of Ajaokuta Steel Project’ in Dutsinma Historical Review, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2019, 42
39. C. C. Osakwe and P. H. Enesi, ‘Corruption and Steel Development in Nigeria…, 49
40. P.H. Enesi, ‘Chinese Steel hegemony and its impact…, 9.